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– Private education: the poor’s best chance?
Whichever path we take — sensory, cognitive or combined — we have several ways to order pluralism, without suppressing it. Going beyond fixed metaphors To avoid both the relativism and imperialism of values, an interactive and adaptable dynamic is necessary. The rapprochement of cultures must be understood as a process, a movement that encourages us to go beyond the fixed metaphors — human rights seen as the foundations, pedestals, pillars or roots of various cultures — and give preference to the metaphor that presents human rights as the common language of humanity.
It suggests three processes, the dynamic effect of which is growing: from intercultural exchange dialogue to the search for equivalences translation , and even to reciprocal transformation creolization. Dialogue, or intercultural exchange, improves the understanding and knowledge of the Other and thus facilitates rapprochement, but does not guarantee it.
The court had ruled that the extradition to the United States, of a man facing a death sentence violated the prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. By its potential applications to various third countries, this case law would have an influence throughout the world. It was also used by the Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa in , to support the judgement on the death penalty as contrary to the prohibition of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.
Lambeaux is an intimate diary reconstructed from disparate elements. The second way, which goes further in the recognition of common values, is translation. But one of the drafters of the Declaration, Zhang Pengchun of China, remarked that if the declaration was to be universal, the notion of reason alone was not enough.
He proposed adding the Chinese term liangxin, which translated to conscience. In reality, the equivalence between liangxin and conscience is weak, because the Chinese term, derived from the characters lian and gxin, evokes moral conscience in the Confucian sense, that is, a conscience that favours otherness.
To solve this type of difficulty, we would need to go even further, by implementing the third means mentioned above: hybridization or, to avoid possible misunderstandings, creolization. I use the word creolization in the way it was used by the French poet Edouard Glissant , when he suggested opening up our particular poetics, one with the other.
In other words, creolization makes it possible to unify differences by integrating them into a common definition. It is a mixture that produces something unexpected. It is a way of overcoming differences. It is also a fantasized diary, where the individual and the collective intertwine in fragmented pages. First used in the charter of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in , this concept is implicitly part of the Western perception of humanity, which is based on the idea that each human being is an individual, and equally, a member of the human community.
But the concept has gradually been extended to the destruction of cultural property. As such, it almost exemplifies the notion of crime against humanity, because in fact it is humanity as a whole that is affected by the destruction of a specific religious culture and cultural objects that are attached to it. The question also comes up regarding Iraq. It would also be necessary to associate the cultures that impose duties on humans towards nature, like those that protect Pachamama Mother Earth , for example, inscribed in the constitutions of Ecuador and Bolivia.
This is perhaps how we should understand the proposal that is currently being circulated, to extend the notion of crime against humanity and genocide to ecocide — that is, the irreversible and serious damage being caused to the equilibrium of the ecosystem. In order to endow the notion of crimes against humanity with a truly universal vocation, other traditions should enrich the Western vision of humanity itself.
The rapprochement of cultures, the theme of the ongoing International Decade , involves many paths that make it possible to resist both relativism and imperialism, and to reconcile the universalism of human rights with the pluralism of cultures. These are the paths that lead to reciprocal humanization. A missive for youth Abdourahman A. To get close to it, everyone must move slightly out of their truth to take a step towards the other.
Today, this letter takes on a prophetic quality. Destitute and disoriented, these young people throw themselves body and soul into a hazardous adventure. For them, to face the desert, the smugglers, the barbed wire, the waves of the Mediterranean, seems more bearable than the feeling of falling by the wayside, rotting on the vine.
What else can they do? Move, flee, opt for migration and perish in the sea if they must. When questioned, the shipwreck survivors emphasize the lack of means of subsistence.
Crossing the Sahara to be sold as a slave in Libya or joining the Boko Haram is neither an option nor a life plan. Growing up in slums, these youth did not have the opportunity to appreciate the legacy of elders who were generous with advice and other lessons of life.
Is it not better to try to understand and to help each other before it is too late? Mali had just joined the Organization as an independent country. Honesty forces me to recognize that I probably would not have had the ears to listen to his advice. The old boubous, the hoary heads and their traditional values did not attract me.
I condemned in advance, this world that seemed to me passive and obsolete. I rejected its rules on principle. I was terribly wrong. The family circle has shrunk considerably. Worse, it is no longer the solid foundation of awakening and transmission that it was yesterday. Just as the beauty of a carpet is the variety of its colours, the diversity of people, cultures and civilizations makes up the beauty and wealth of the world. How boring and monotonous would be a uniform world where all humans, fashioned according to the same model, thought and lived in the same way!
Having nothing more to discover in others, how would one enrich oneself? Depending on how they assimilate this phenomenon, they will ensure its survival or cause their destruction by deadly conflicts.
In this modern world, none can take refuge any longer in their ivory towers. All states, whether strong or weak, rich or poor, are now interdependent, if only economically or in the face of the dangers of global war. Ideas The UNESCO Courier April-June 49 Whether individuals, nations, races or cultures, we are all different from each other; but we all have something similar too, and that is what we must look for, in order to be able to recognize ourselves in the other and to converse with him.
The good gardener is not the one who uproots, but the one who, when the time comes, knows how to prune the dead branches and, if necessary, proceed judiciously with beneficial grafts. Artwork by the self-taught pluri-disciplinary plastician Cyrus Kabiru Kenya. The land was not the property of humans, but a sacred trust entrusted to them by the Creator and of which they were only the managers.
The time has come to put it in the hands of everyone, young and old, in Africa and elsewhere. Having taken some unusual paths to reach the higher spheres of knowledge, he made it his mission to pass on the baton to us — regardless of our beliefs, our skin colour or our age. Abdourahman A. Waberi, a novelist, essayist and poet, was born in what is today the Republic of Djibouti.
Translated into over a dozen languages, his work seeks answers from the world with anger, tenderness and compassion. It was forbidden to cut a tree without reason, to kill an animal without a valid motive. I discovered French haute couture, and realized that there is a grammar in fashion that I wanted to study. I had received different awards for art between the ages of 6 and 12, but I did not want to study art. I wanted to do something different. I wanted to go to London.
Over six months, the London College of Fashion refused my application, but they finally accepted me, with many conditions attached. On 7 March , thirty-three girls from the shelter, including six Rohingya refugee kids, walked the ramp at a fashion show organized by the government in Kolkata and conceived by Russell. Fashion design was your true passion and vocation, though you first became famous as a top model. How did a young girl from Bangladesh decide to go to a fashion school in London?
At home, my mother used to sew clothes for us. My sisters never complained, but I was never quite happy with the clothes. So when I was 10 years old, my father bought me a sewing machine.
But her real success is away from these podiums, in hundreds of weaving workshops in her country, Bangladesh, but also in Uzbekistan, Colombia, India. The show was her tribute to Mahatma Gandhi and to the traditional Rajasthani weavers who created the homespun cloth. Russell also participated in the Commonwealth Fashion Exchange in February , with an exhibition showcasing sustainable fashion from the Commonwealth countries.
A young girl trained by Bibi Russell in Uzbekistan, embroidering traditional designs. I think parents must teach their children more about their culture and traditions so that these traditions do not die. Most traditional weavers live in villages. Why did you decide to base your company in Dhaka, the capital? I only have one office located in Dhaka. I need an office from which we can connect to the rest of the world. But I spend We work with craftsmen from different parts of Bangladesh.
They are not from privileged families, and each one of them — starting from the person who makes tea in my office — feels that Bibi Productions is theirs. I have done this for the people of Bangladesh, and Bibi Productions belongs to the country. How would you define the philosophy behind Bibi Productions?
We cannot say that Bibi Productions is not-for-profit, but we make very little profit. Our focus is on saving and reviving the crafts and supporting the craftspeople, and on raising their awareness about the importance of education and health. I see the difference since I started Bibi Productions in All the people working either in the office or in the villages have no more than two or three children.
They know how to better manage the money they make, and their standard of living has improved. Having come out of poverty, they understand the importance of their children going to school. Education and health is the backbone of any economy in any country. How many people does Bibi Productions employ?
We have some thirty people from different corners of Bangladesh working in the office. There are people who first thought they would not have the skills and knowledge to work in the office. But I am able to recognize people with a positive attitude. In addition, we work with thousands of craftspeople. I cannot say their exact number, but they are around , It is not even one per cent of the weavers in the country!
I wish that I could feel that I have reached the first step of the ladder before I die — there is so much more to be done. In countries like India, Bangladesh, Central Asia, agriculture is the most important sector of the economy. People working in agriculture and handicrafts live side by side. I work with people who do things by hand: Fashion for Development is what I am.
How did the idea of Fashion for Development start? Designers are very rarely given recognition by United Nations agencies, but the Organization recognized the link between fashion and development, education and health. If the media made me Bibi the model, these two people, who believed in me from the start, gave me priceless support in my career as a designer. I also received a lot of international support. Since then, I have been invited to top universities in the world, which now work on fashion for development, and to the World Economic Forum WEF , because they realize the importance of the creative economy and the social economy.
After twenty years in the West, where you built a successful career as a top model, you returned to Bangladesh in What made you do that?
Since I was young, I had a dream. I could not understand why Bangladeshi people were thought of as poor. For me, the country was rich with colours and music! When I went to Europe, my dream went with me. One day I knew that I was mentally and physically ready to go back home. I believed that the people of Bangladesh needed me as much as I needed them.
You need two hands to clap. Today, after more than twenty years of experience, I know I was right. They know I respect them and help them restore their human dignity. That is the most important thing. On the other hand, they give me so much love and affection! This gives me the strength to go forward. Nothing in the world can take me away from this work. I have never turned my back on my country. My parents always lived in Bangladesh, so I returned home regularly even when I lived abroad.
I was born in Bangladesh and spent my childhood there. I think childhood has a major impact on your life. I have a wonderful family. My parents taught me to appreciate our culture as well as the culture of other countries. Bangladesh used to be a part of India, which was governed by the British and the Mughals.
Thanks to the education my parents gave me, I learned all about Greater India and about the culture of other countries as well. Then, in , you were made an Artist for Peace.
But also, thanks to my work, people realize that Bangladesh does not only have problems, it is also a wonderful country. When I was designated Designer for Development, I returned home and showed the certificate to the weavers. I told them that the honour was for them, not just for me. Any recognition gives you strength. I am a fellow of the University of the Arts, London.
This recognition is given to me for the contribution I have made to promoting handloom. And the biggest designers in the world have also recognized the work I do for development.
The international recognition helps me a lot in my work of promoting Fashion for Development. What defines your work as a fashion designer?
Everything we do at Bibi Productions is natural and handmade. I have never used synthetic fabrics or artificial colours. My models are inspired by traditional design. Of course I change colours, I simplify the design, but I never change the traditional way of weaving cotton or silk. Among my biggest sellers are my accessories and scarves. My bangles are made out of water hyacinth, a plant that grows widely in Bangladesh.
I now have women in six villages making these bangles. And my gamuchas are promoted by the Spanish actor, Antonio Banderas, so I do not need to spend money on publicity.
I would never do that anyway — Bibi Productions is a self-funded project, and hundreds of people depend on me for their livelihoods. How has your work evolved? When I started working in Cambodia, I began recycling and today, I have become an expert at recycling!
In Bangladesh, I make things out of what people throw away. We do jeans in different colours, saris in a different way, modern blouses, etc. How do you balance your family life with your professional activities? I know married life, I have two children. When my kids were around 9 or 10, I had to make them realize that I have a dream, and that if I do not pursue it, I would be frustrated. Today, my parents have both passed away, my children live abroad, but the craftspeople I work with never allow me to feel alone.
These are ordinary people, who need their wages on the first day of the month to pay the rent. They are not my family, but they mean more than anything to me. Since I returned to Bangladesh, I started to support street children.
I gave them some money on the condition they went to school. I became their guarantor for NGO non-governmental organization schools, where street children are not usually accepted. It was first one child, then another — now they are more than a hundred!
They are my source of joy when I am in Dhaka. Bibi Russell pays tribute to the craftswomen of Barmer, Rajasthan, whose work was presented at a fashion show to celebrate Rajasthan Day in the Indian state, March Not surprisingly, about libraries across Greece will implement several special programmes within the summer reading campaign, led by the National Library of Greece. One million visitors expected The programme features a vivid patchwork of over events and activities, all revolving around the world of books, learning and knowledge.
With a million visitors expected, the city aspires to provide a literary backdrop to cater to all tastes and ages. Books and reading are melded with art and creativity, focusing on learning, but also exhibiting that books can bring joy and pleasure to readers.
At a time when the country is going through financial hardships and the book industry is facing a crisis, financing the event has had its challenges. What surprised and motivated us was the interest and willingness of most participants to commit and undertake actions, using their own means to be a part of this very special event for the city.
Proud of having been named World Book Capital for , the ancient capital kicks off its global cultural event to celebrate books in myriad ways, in April In preparation for the event, the City of Athens has worked hard to translate the vision of the Mayor of Athens, Georgios Kaminis, into reality. This is expected to increase the self-esteem of the people and contribute to social integration and coherence. To make this possible, the City has joined hands with over institutions where learning takes place, and with writers and the publishing industry.
Instead of passing down our own culture to our children and grandchildren, and having them create their own art based on that culture, they are paying for foreign entertainment. The outcome is that our youth is disconnected from both our traditions and the work of contemporary African authors and thinkers.
Yet, our youth is as talented anywhere else in the world. I have witnessed young girls and boys produce the most beautiful music with the most rudimentary instruments, or making some of the best short films using their smartphones — all without any formal training. But with disappearing local traditions, and the lack of avenues to channel their creativity, they live in a cultural vacuum.
Consuming content that is bombarded on the internet is not enough — these young people need to be given access to the right tools and opportunities, and to be guided and encouraged to craft their own stories. The African continent is overflowing with talent: musicians, writers, poets, philosophers, dancers and other artists.
These artists and their creative work are the conduits through which cultures pass from one generation to the next. The list goes on. Some exiled Africans are teaching at prestigious universities abroad where their real value is appreciated — while students in their home countries are deprived of their wisdom. At the same time, traditional oral literature is disappearing from our cultural scene.
When I was young — I grew up in a small village during apartheid in Southern Rhodesia now Zimbabwe — my identity and cultural needs were nourished through this literature that elders conveyed through stories recounted in the evenings. It was in school that I read the classics by numerous icons of English, French and American literature. These books did not reflect our reality, and were devoid of thoughts that might have given us any ideas of equality with Whites.
But regardless of the censorship, reading opened up a whole new world for me — introducing me to other cultures and to philosophical thinking and reasoning, which led to questioning the status quo. La professeure Ada E. The same applies to visual artists, whose work needs galleries to exhibit their genius. It is also essential to develop policies governing intellectual property to protect their work.
Lack of funds? How can Southern Africa shape public policy to fill this cultural vacuum with relevant content? How can African youth learn to reflect before regurgitating whatever comes their way? How can the region reject that which is toxic and incorporate that which is untainted, into their own creative work? The common argument about a lack of funds may be valid in many cases.
But it is interesting to note that nearly every Southern African country spends millions on football stadiums and on the inflated salaries of footballers. It is true that sport must be promoted and that football stadiums are generally profitable. One solution could be to create a strategy in which sports and culture were merged.
Revenue from stadiums, for example, could be channelled to fund libraries, cinemas, theatres, music centres. Another frequent political argument is that any investment should create jobs. Take the example of Hollywood, which employs thousands, if not millions, directly or indirectly — economically benefiting the United States, besides allowing it to use its soft power. Now that technology is available to us, we too are in a position to craft our own stories — through literature, cinema, and art.
Most world-views of Africa continue to be tainted by colonial points of view — African voices, if provided the right platforms, could change that. Lucy Mushita Zimbabwe is a novelist and essayist. Born in Southern Rhodesia, she grew up in a small village during apartheid. Her novel Chinongwa published in South Africa in , and in France in explores this period of her life, before she left her country in , for France, the United States and Australia — eventually making Paris her home.
The decolonial dimension of their projects represent a real challenge to the political classes and even the general public, largely because of their horizontal rather than hierarchical reach, combining real political action with a social stance. Much needs to be done urgently in Africa, but, above all, there is a need to foster the emergence of a new kind of dialogue among youth — using with other methods and other players if necessary, and with the ultimate aim of seizing power democratically.
One alternative is gradually taking shape and deserves careful attention. New political youth movements are appearing, springing up from urban cultures and suburban neighbourhoods. These civil society movements are a breath of fresh air compared to the drab and essentially interchangeable political classes.
The message of these new elites breaks with classical political-speak — it is raw, direct and delivered in a language that can be understood by those to whom it is addressed, which explains its success. Young Africans: reinventing politics Hamidou Anne Many young people in Africa are taking a stand against the current politics in their countries. As civil-society campaigners who are active on social media networks, they are challenging the established authorities — using rap and graffiti, and bringing traditional cultural codes up to date.
The African political classes have failed in their mission to build nations characterized by justice and progress, in spite of a number of significant and very welcome advances. Adding the non-existence of credible alternatives among the opposition parties, we are forced to admit that politics in general have reached a low point. These groups have proven their effectiveness. This helped to torpedo amendments to the Constitution by parliament that would have allowed the re-election of Abdoulaye Wade — and probably ensuring that his son took over when he stood down.
Young Africans: reinventing politics Crowds cheering the caravan of Balai Citoyen, during the demonstration against the constitutional revision project in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, October They also show no desire to participate directly in elections.
These movements are all attempts to decolonize politics. They aim to return politics to the people — into the hands of citizens who have hitherto been excluded from the democratic process and consulted only to add their stamp of approval by voting. Interestingly, the way these groups are organized is a form of direct democracy. Through a network of local branches, Le Balai Citoyen enables people across the nation to take part in decision-making.
This kind of transversal connection does not exist in conventional politics. Art at the service of politics By using music, dance, graffiti and references borrowed from street poetry, these movements are succeeding in bringing together young people who understand the language and codes of their neighbourhoods. On the streets and via the internet, they are calling for an alternative dialogue and for projects that give wings to their dreams.
These new players in African politics are employing a range of cultural references to support their actions. Rap music, for instance, has been a powerful vector for getting the message of opposition across. As beacons of hope, the responsibility of these movements is great. They represent political forces that are uninhibited, free, and unencumbered by colonial burdens. It is thanks to them that the continent no longer conjures up only images of pity, generated by poverty, famine, AIDS and war.
We are on the threshold of a radically emancipating project. Much like the anti-austerity Indignados movement in Spain, which gave rise to the far-left Podemos political party in , these groups will sooner or later be called upon to stand in general elections.
I see nothing but an endless flat land Yet you can say it by heart. His name is Raymond Tutcho. He lives close to the Great Bear Lake, the last large pristine Arctic lake. Dene people are an aboriginal group of First Nations who inhabit the central Northwest Territories of Canada. After decades of efforts, they won the right to self-governance in As long as these gifts are looked after and kept in good condition, they, in turn, will continue to bestow their bounty on the people.
To prevent that from happening, we need to educate people about the importance of water. What the community is worried about is that modernization will bring more development projects to the reserve, upsetting the natural balance. The community relies on harvesting fish and wildlife to provide for much of its needs.
Its renewable resource economy includes limited — but increasing — tourism and infrastructure development. The establishment of the indigenous public DGG has helped the economy tremendously. For instance, when it was noticed that the number of caribou dwindled from , fifteen years ago to 60, due to climate change, the DGG introduced limits on hunting the animals.
Animals, birds, fish, thunder, lightning, water, rocks, all possess a living force and must be respected. All of nature is alive, and everything has its own spirit. The partnership between government and non-government organizations has broadened the consensus about the critical role indigenous people play in managing their own lands. The event was unanimously hailed and celebrated by the community. Decisions of the council are based on consensus. Huge expanses of pristine boreal forest and taiga, rivers and mountains cover much of the watershed, which is divided into three ecological zones: the Taiga plains in the west; the Taiga shield to the south-east, which includes the drainage area of the Camsell River; and the Southern Arctic ecological zone on the north-eastern edge of the lake.
Within these eco-zones, the lands are further classified into nine ecological regions and a total of twenty-two eco-districts. Each of these smaller areas have a distinct combination of landforms, permafrost perennially frozen ground , soils, climate and biological communities which makes them unique.
The animals found here in large numbers include the barren ground caribou, grizzly bear, moose and muskox, and a variety of migratory birds, attesting to the high degree of ecological integrity in the reserve. The people of Great Bear Lake essentially live off the renewable resources offered by the lake. Modern life is intrinsically linked to modern technologies, the use of which depends on the knowledge of modern languages.
Younger people learn English, and gradually lose their connections to their tribal language. How then is the knowledge and wisdom that elders possess transmitted to younger generations? As its languages disappear, indigenous knowledge is disappearing too. Sport psychologists and team managers in the various premier league clubs should incorporate appropriate interventions e.
Participating in professional sport places extreme demands on athletes and coaches in their quest to achieve a common goal Mellalieu et al. Previous studies have indicated that elite athletes and coaches operate in a complex environment which exposes them to many stressful situations because of the demands put on them Mellalieu et al. It is worth noting that when an individual experiences a stressor, that does not necessarily lead to stress unless the person is unable to manage the situation Mellalieu et al.
General psychology literature has shown that individuals who encounter stressors that they cannot deal with experience many physical symptoms e. Within sport psychology, previous studies e.
For example, Kristiansen et al. The athletes in Kristiansen’s study further acknowledged that unhealthy and intense rivalry for team placement negatively impacted the team’s general morale and performance Kristiansen et al. Additionally, Thelwell et al. Similarly, Mellalieu et al. Within the context of Africa, Kubayi et al. Again, Surujlan and Nguyen identified sources of stress among South African coaches to be lack of resources, external pressure and internal capacity as multiple pressures experienced by African coaches.
According to stress researchers, if these stressors are not appropriately dealt with, they can negatively affect players’ and coaches’ emotions Fletcher et al. Other studies have found that these stressors encountered by players and coaches are influenced or moderated by different antecedents Nicholls and Polman, For example, Nicholls and Polman found a relationship between athletes’ stressors, type of sport and skill levels in which players in team sports reported many stressors such as the environment surrounding their teams.
Nicholls and Polman further revealed that highly skilled athletes reported coping better with stressors than their less skilled counterparts. Moreover, Frazer found that competitive level revealed no difference between NCCA coaches and those working at other levels.
Additionally, age and years of experience have also proven to be associated with sport performers’ experiences of stressful situations. For instance, Hagan et al.
For example, existing skill classification indicates the likelihood that an athlete who is regarded as highly skilled would have a very low experience because of a sudden increase in her or his sport performance Hagan et al. Additionally, chronological age which is associated with competitive experience of athletes could also influence competitive anxiety Hagan et al.
There is therefore the possibility that more experienced or older athletes and coaches might be minimally affected by related anxiety symptoms more than less experienced or younger sport performers who might be skilled or otherwise Hagan et al. Comparatively, Hammermeister and Burton found that older endurance athletes demonstrated lower cognitive anxiety than their younger colleagues due to the usage of fewer ego-threatening goals during competitive situations.
Even though there are several stress related studies in Ghana, it is surprising that stress research in the country has primarily focused on non-sporting populations such as security personnel Gyamfi, ; Arthur, , health workers Acquaye, , and other employees Azumah, ; Duah, ; Nnuro, Arthur , for example, investigated occupational stressors among police officers in the Central Region of Ghana and revealed organizational constraints like work overload, public criticisms, and accommodation as more stressful to the sampled police officers than their exposure to physical hazards.
Similarly, Nnuro found workload as a major stressor among Polytechnic staff in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The fact that stress-related researchers in Ghana have ignored the sporting population e.
It is also not clear whether stressors encountered by football players and coaches in other continents or jurisdictions would apply to the Ghanaian context due to context-specific reasons. For instance, some studies have suggested the possibility of some stressors being peculiar or exclusive and unique to some particular cultural groups and contexts Noblet and Gifford, ; Mckay et al.
Further, specificities about culture would be necessary to provide understanding about the way other teams or groups perceive stressors Kristiansen et al. Some scholars have also stressed the need for culturally diversified research and practice in sport psychology to create a better awareness regarding different cultures and their stress experiences in sport.
This perspective is reiterated by Markus and Kitayama and Dzokoto who opined that psychological episode like stress could be idiosyncratic to specific context and not universal across cultures. Therefore, this study examined the prevalence of stressors experienced by football players and coaches in the Ghana premier league, their sources, and how their ages and years of experience relate to the stressors they encounter.
Empirical information gathered from this study would guide sport psychologists to design specific stress management interventions for football players and coaches. Additionally, the study would form a basis for future stress-related research among coaches, footballers, and other sporting populations in Ghana.
Although a total of participants undertook the survey including players and 54 coaches , players and 44 coaches officially completed the survey, resulting in a response rate of Majority of the participants reported years of experience below 5 years. In line with Swann’s et al. Thus, reaching this level of competitiveness premier level is a great achievement in their professional career. Only 9 2. Some preliminary information on the instrument informed participants to be open and honest, and asked them to respond to the survey instrument according to the team they mostly played for, in case they had played for two teams or more within the season.
The instrument has five-subscales including: Team and Culture four-items; e. Based on this categorization, a mean score below 2. Previous studies reported internal consistency values using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the intensity scale ranging from 0. The current study reported Cronbach alpha coefficient values from 0. This pre-testing was done to check for homogeneity of characteristics of the main sample.
It also helped to identify lapses in advance and areas where the instrument may need some adjustment. This enabled the researchers to adjust the instrument to make it suitable for both players and coaches to respond to without any confusion. The participants’ recruitment process began by meeting with Chief Executive Officers CEOs of the various teams, team managers, players and coaches to discuss the rationale of the research. While familiarization was going on, the survey instrument was thoroughly explained to the participants who were further briefed about their rights to withdraw from being part of the study, right to keeping every response they provide anonymous and keeping their responses confidential.
Participants were also assured that the information provided would be accessible to the researchers only. Thirty-four 34 research assistants two from each team were selected and trained by the researchers to help in gathering the data. The research assistants were thoroughly briefed about the rationale of the study while each item on the survey instrument including the scales were well explained to them.
Prior to gathering the data, each participant endorsed an informed consent form after which the survey instruments and pencils were distributed to them by the trained research assistants to respond to at their home grounds after morning training sessions.
Providing answers to the questionnaires took about 15—20 min which lasted for about a period of 3 months for all the teams. Participants who could not answer the questionnaire because of language barriers were assisted by the research assistants using their local dialects.
All COVID safety protocols were observed during all face-to-face administration of the instrument. All answered survey instruments were retrieved in sealed brown envelops.
Data was statistically tested for multivariate linearity and outliers, missing data, univariate and multivariate normality, multicollinearity, and variance-covariance matrix homogeneity. For univariate and multivariate normality, Q-Q plots were used to check whether all data points were closer to the line.
To check for linearity assumptions and outliers, scatter plots were used. The Box’s M test of equality of covariance matrices was used to assess the homogeneity of variance-covariance, and multicollinearity assumptions were also examined to establish how the dependent variables were connected. These were done to minimize errors in the actual data to be analyzed. Participants’ demographic information age and years of experience and the organizational stressors prevalent among football players were assessed using means and standard deviations.
Further, to investigate the relationship between organizational stressors and participants’ ages and years of experience, the factorial Multivariate Analysis of Variance MANOVA , with age and years of experience as independent variables and the five 5 dimensions of the OSI-SP Goals and Development, Logistics and Operations, Team and Culture, Coaching and Selection as dependent variables was used to analyze the data.
The intensity level of stressors experienced was moderate and coaches significantly experienced it more than the players. Focusing on specific areas of stressors, both players and coaches experienced them in very similar areas of their work. Descriptive statistics means and standard deviation on the prevalence of organizational stressors among football coaches and players. A similar trend of results was found for the players.
This research question sought to examine the contribution of age and years of experience to organizational stressors among football coaches and players in the premier league in Ghana. These categorisations were done to ensure adequate cell sizes and to get useful sample split for analyzing the data Pallant, Prior to the analysis, the key assumptions: univariate and multivariate normality, outlier detection, multicollinearity, and homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices were tested and found satisfactory.
There was no violation of the homogeneity of variance-covariance assumption for both players and coaches. Therefore, Wilk’s Lamda estimates was reported. Multivariate results for players on the contribution of age and years of experience on organizational stressors.
For the interpretation of the univariate results, a similar stringent alpha i. The same previous procedure was followed to generate a new alpha value of 0. Test of between-subject effects for players on the contribution of age and years of experience on organizational stressors. The results, as shown in Table 3 , revealed that experience, age and experience-by-age did not significantly influence the specific dimensions of organizational stressor indicators for players.
There was no evidence that age and experience influenced the stressors of football players. Multivariate results for coaches on the contribution of age and years of experience on organizational stressors. Tests of between subject effects univariate results for coaches on the contribution of age and years of experience on organizational stressors.
For the interpretation of the univariate result, a stringent alpha i. This approach was done by dividing the alpha level by the number of dependent variables. That is, 0. Therefore, the p -values are compared with 0.
The results, as shown in Table 5 , revealed that experience, age and experience-by-age did not significantly influence the specific dimensions of organizational stressor indicators for coaches. There was no evidence that age and experience influenced the stressors of football coaches. The first objective of this study assessed the organizational stressors prevalent among premier league players and coaches in Ghana, including the relative contribution of age and years of experience.
Results of this study revealed that players and coaches in the Ghanaian premier league generally experienced many stressors. The intensity of these stressors was moderate and coaches significantly experienced them more than the players. Specifically, both players and coaches experienced high to moderate stressor demands on selection, team and culture, and goals and development, respectively. Stressors regarding logistics and operations, and coaching were the least experienced by both players and coaches in the Ghana premier league.
The current findings on the prevalence of organizational stressors among football players and coaches in this study corroborates existing literature e. For example, Didymus found that coaches experienced many stressors in relation to selection, athlete concerns, coaching responsibilities, expectations, interference, preparation, organizational management, and performance among others. Further, Kristiansen et al. The authors indicated that football coaches are the ones who usually set standards and control all activities in the team.
Additionally, Fletcher and Scott and Kubayi et al. Similar evidence was revealed in Thelwell et al. The authors indicated that coaches who operate at the highest competitive level perform their duties in a pressurized, complex and dynamic environment, placing a heavy demand on them to perform even in the midst of all challenges.
The similarities in the findings could be as a result of standardization of the competing environment with increasing demands across professional leagues eliciting enormous burden on players and coaches.
The practices, philosophies, principles, and rules governing football globally are consistent and as such similar soccer environments exist irrespective of the country. Thus, the demands exerted by supporters and management on their teams to perform well in the league, coaching practices, and coaching systems among others increase the stressor demands of both players and coaches Kroshus et al.
Taken together, the overall supervisory role often given to the coaches to ensure that the team performs to the best of its ability at all competitions or matches has varied elements, including selection e. Players, however, are expected to implement or execute the plans outlined by their coaches in pursuit of successes in matches or competitions.
Hence, coaches are more likely to be burdened more compared to their players. Alternatively, whereas players are not sacked for poor performance, coaches are usually relieved of their official duties or sacked for the overall performance of their teams even though there could be multifaceted factors e.
Within football administration, club owners or Board of Directors BODs usually set performance standards that have to be met by coaches on their assumption to post and such standards put enormous demand on the coaches. While there was no change at the top in Germany, France, or Italy, there was a shift in England and Spain.
In its 25 year history DFML has seen a great deal of change, both on and off the pitch, but some things have remained constant. Nine clubs have appeared in every edition of DFML across the last 25 years. These clubs come from 11 different nations, 10 of which are European. English clubs again make up the highest proportion with 15 representatives, though not all currently compete in the Premier League.
Again, despite anti-racism gestures becoming a regular occurrence on the pitch, we are still a long way off achieving greater equality behind the scenes.
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